History of Nepal and Role of Prithivi Narayan Shah
Prithivi Narayan Shah (PNS) - a Unifier or Brutal Conqueror?
Before the Shah dynasty, there is a myth that Newar Kingdom was Just the 3 small regions of Kathmandu valley.
Looking closer at the timelines of the Licchavi era and the Malla era, the political and geographical reach of the valley-based kingdoms went much further than just the three cities.
To understand how the “Newar kingdom” (historically referred to as Nepal Mandala) extended far into the hills and borders, the history divides into two distinct high-points: the ancient Licchavi expansion and the medieval Malla peak.
1. The Licchavi Expansion (c. 450 – 750 CE)
The Licchavis laid the absolute foundation for what would evolve into Newar civilization, blending Sanskrit-based court culture with the indigenous Himalayan populations. During this era, “Nepal” was vastly larger than just the valley bowl:
Territorial Reach: Under powerful kings like Manadeva I (who left the famous 464 CE inscription at Changu Narayan), the Licchavi kingdom launched massive military campaigns. Manadeva marched his army eastward and westward, suppressing rebellious feudal lords. At its absolute zenith, Licchavi influence extended west toward Gorkha, northwest into Tistung, and east well past Banepa toward the Sun Koshi region. Some historical estimates even suggest their tributary or political influence brushed against parts of modern-day Bihar and West Bengal.
The Trade Network: The Licchavis didn’t just conquer; they established fortified trading outposts called Drangas. Outposts like Nuwakot to the northwest and Dolakha to the east were heavily influenced by the valley’s administration, serving as geopolitical arms extending outward to secure the high-altitude trade routes.
2. The Great Malla Zenith under King Yaksha Malla (15th Century)
Even after the Licchavi dynasty shifted into the Malla era—where the distinctive Newari language (Nepal Bhasa), art, and architecture became completely solidified—the kingdom was not always split into three weak pieces.
Before the infamous split, King Yaksha Malla (who ruled a unified valley from 1428 to 1482 CE) pushed the borders of the Malla Empire to its absolute historical maximum:
To the West: His authority reached all the way to the borders of Gorkha and Palpa.
To the East: His kingdom stretched into the Kirat lands, reaching down toward the plains of Digboi and Bengal.
To the North: He successfully pushed authority up to the high Himalayan passes of Kuti and Kerung, forcing Tibet to acknowledge Nepal’s trade dominance.
During Yaksha Malla’s reign, the Newar kingdom was undeniably large, centralized, and immensely powerful.
Was Prithvi Narayan Shah a Unifier?
The unification campaign led by King Prithvi Narayan Shah (PNS) and the Gorkhali army in the mid-to-late 18th century relied heavily on fear, economic warfare, and severe punitive actions. While celebrated by nationalist narratives for preventing British colonization, the campaign is remembered by indigenous and local communities—most notably the Newars and the Kirat populations—for a series of documented brutalities.
The primary historical accounts detailing these events come from local folklore, indigenous oral histories, contemporary Italian Capuchin missionaries present in the valley, and later British envoys.
1. Atrocities Against the Newar Communities
The Kathmandu Valley city-states fiercely resisted Gorkhali rule, leading to extreme retributive measures once they fell.
The Mutilation at Kirtipur (1767): Kirtipur, a fortified Newar hilltop town, defeated the Gorkhali army twice, killing the top Gorkhali general Kalu Pande and later blinding PNS’s brother, Surpratap Shah, in one eye. When the town finally fell on the third attempt due to internal betrayal, PNS ordered severe retribution. According to accounts by Capuchin missionaries (such as Father Giuseppe) and later confirmed by British Colonel Kirkpatrick—who saw the survivors 26 years later—the noses and lips of all male inhabitants over the age of 12 were chopped off. Only wind instrument players were spared so they could play at the victory celebration. Historical texts state the severed noses and lips filled large baskets and weighed roughly 80 pounds.
The Targeted Execution of Newar Nobility: Following the capitulation of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur, PNS systematically dismantled the local Newar political structures. While the common public was largely spared further physical mutilation, dozens of prominent Newar noblemen, ministers (Kajis), and loyalists to the Malla kings who had actively resisted the Gorkhalis were summarily executed or stripped of their ancestral properties.
The Choking Blockade and Hanged Civilians: To weaken the Malla kingdoms, PNS enforced a brutal economic and food blockade on the valley for years. Gorkhali soldiers completely encircled the valley and hung or decapitated anyone caught smuggling grain, salt, or oil into the valley cities as a public warning to others.
2. Atrocities Against the Kirat Communities (Limbuwan and Khambuwan)
The eastern theater of the unification campaign involved a protracted, bloody guerrilla war against the Kirat people (including the Rai and Limbu communities), who refused to accept Gorkhali hegemony.
The Chainpur Massacres: In the eastern hills, particularly around Chainpur, the Gorkhali army faced relentless rebellions from Kirat warriors even after claiming territory. Gorkhali commanders responded with mass executions, hanging rebels from trees and drowning others en masse in local rivers to terrorize the population into submission.
The Slaughter at Majhkirat: Historical oral accounts of the Rai community note that when Gorkhali forces overran the middle hills, entire villages suspected of harboring warriors or refusing to pay tribute were put to the sword. Men, women, and children were systematically targeted to suppress any future insurgencies.
Cultural and Structural Eradication: Beyond physical violence, the Gorkhalis used legal and systemic brutality. The Kipat system (the traditional, communal landownership rights of the Kirats) was gradually infringed upon. Indigenous leadership was systematically replaced by Gorkhali administrators, and local religious and cultural practices were heavily suppressed in favor of Hindu state laws.
3. Measures Against Other Communities
The Magar and Gurung Conscriptions and Purges: While Magars and Gurungs formed the backbone of the Gorkhali fighting force, their loyalty was enforced through absolute martial law. Clans or villages within the western hill states (Chaubise Rajya) that sided with local kings against Gorkha were treated as traitors, suffering village burnings and forced displacement.
The Demolition of Makwanpur: During the siege of Makwanpur (south of the valley), the Gorkhali army inflicted heavy casualties on the local Sen kingdom defenders. After victory, hundreds of soldiers were executed, and the region was subjected to heavy extraction of resources to fund the ongoing valley blockade.
